The articles in this essay have been divided into three major areas: those concerned with the storage and handling of videotape; surveys and studies of collections; and esthetic and ethical debates common in video preservation. Many videotape preservation issues are analogous to ones experienced by paper archivists. Familiar issues include the diversity of collections and conservation procedures, funding, selection for preservation, and optimal storage conditions. Debates unique to magnetic media specialists involve reformatting to newer technologies, and obsolescence of both the tape and the playback medium.

Most of the articles cite similar issues and techniques. The most disparate information is found in the storage and handling section. Most, however, mention the need to increase both patron and staff awareness of the delicate nature of tape. Almost all make mention of the need for careful handling, institutional policies, and trained staff who can periodically view tape to review its rate of deterioration. It is worth mentioning at the outset that tape cannot be properly assessed unless it is played on the proper equipment, and compared by a professional against other copies.

There is a great deal of information in print and on the Internet aimed at home video connoisseurs and videographers. I have decided to set these aside in order to sample what professional conservators and video repositories have to say.

I was surprised at the paucity of scholarly information regarding audiotape. While music and recording magazines like Billboard or Stereo Review provide bleeding-edge reviews of new audio technology, there is far less information aimed at professional conservators. Many of the articles discussed below, however, agree that magnetic media, whether audio or video, should be cared for in similar ways.

What do magnetic tapes have to do with the library?

Audio and videotapes are no strangers to libraries. The Midhudson Library System reported owning 45,000 videotapes in 1998; it circulated over 90, 000 audiovisual materials in total. [1]Audio books are very popular in public libraries: libraries purchase audiocassette readings in for adult, children's, and young adult collections.[2] While the number of titles in audio and video formats acquired by libraries is a small fraction of overall acquisitions spending, the numbers are still impressive and illustrate the importance that magnetic media have in our nation's libraries.[3]
 

The physical nature of the tape: Some common problems, tape assessment

Tapes are essentially polyester, but contain a number of sprayed- or brushed- on additives that keep the tape moisture resistant and lubricated. These additives are of questionable longevity. A tape's stability is directly related to the quality of the tape. The more magnetic media, and the less volatile the binding agents, the better the picture quality and longevity. Early videotapes, including the U-Matic, were of especially poor design: the tape had so little binding agent that the tapes would begin to disintegrate when the user hit the Pause button on their VCR.[4]  Static cling and even the electromagnetic charge in the atmosphere can damage tapes.[5]

The number of video formats in commercial use is staggering. Videotapes have undergone a great deal of experimentation. At any media archive, one is likely to find reel-to-reel tapes of 1 1/2, 2, and four- inch thicknesses. Cassettes vary both in linear feet, width, and binding agent. Some record at speeds unique to their recorders; others place the audio track at the top or at the bottom. Any one of these tapes requires the original playback unit. Rapid development and experimentation encouraged a variety of formats that are obsolete, and must be migrated to newer storage media.[6]

At some media centers, tapes are periodically reviewed to check for deterioration. Physical inspection of each item is the only way to assess a tape. A conservator must view the tape for himself to ascertain the degree of damage. This is an expensive use of time.[7]

Tapes should be checked for hydrolysis: a gumming-up of the magnetic tape when exposed to high humidity. They should also be checked for fungus. Fungal spores can accumulate inside a VCR, so it is important to inspect and clean both the tape and its playback medium.[8]  One may check for evidence of warping, stretching, or whether the reels are locked. One should then check the wind of the tape, to see if the fragile ends of the tape are folded, creased, or deteriorated.

The process of evaluating and caring for a video collection is ongoing and time-consuming. Many media centers report owning tens of thousands of tapes, and many more have inadequate resources to treat their collections properly (more on this later).

All of the articles below agree that humidity, temperature, demagnetization, particulate pollution, and faulty playback media are causes for serious concern. Some resources differ slightly: LC reports that the probability of demagnetization is negligible with careful handling, but Wheeler and Van Bogart quote several studies that show it to be an important issue. Similarly, while most agree that tapes should be rewound before playing in order to refresh the tape's lubricants, a few did not deem the periodic "exercising" of the tape necessary. Wheeler is adamant regarding the use of multiple masters and frequent copying to well-established formats, while LC stresses the importance of professional VCR maintenance.

Jim Wheeler on Preservation

Wheeler's primary concern is low-temperature tape storage.[9]  Citing a 1992 study, he concludes that a master tape stored at 40 degrees Fahrenheit will last for a century if used infrequently.[10]  Lower temperatures inhibit binder degradation and oxidation, while lowering stress on the tape reels. According to Wheeler, video enthusiasts and media centers alike rerecord tapes onto inexpensive, unproven media. Many tapes are rendered unplayable because they were recorded with faulty or obsolete recorders or tapes. In conclusion, if one cares deeply about the future of the information, one should record it using the highest quality material possible.

Many of the his handling suggestions appear elsewhere: ship materials overnight; never lend a master copy; restrict access to even circulating copies; Avoid using VHS tape-- it is the weakest of all cassette media; and use commercial-quality VCRs for playback.
 
 

John Van Bogart

Van Bogart’s lengthy report provides detailed illustrations of tape deterioration, lubricant loss, and playback media.[11]

The article focuses on three ideas: first, the cost of storing magnetic media not measured by how much it costs, but by the potential cost of the lost information. Transcription (data migration to another format or another tape) is expensive but inevitable. Secondly, routine inspection of materials is essential. Finally, he suggests that much of the information we know about videotape storage has been handed down from paper and film storage research. It has only been in the early 1990s that the preservation world has been able to benefit from experiments in magnetic research.

Van Bogart recommends using manufactures' technical literature in order to work with specific video media. Because videotapes are composed of a variety of chemical combinations, one should not expect them to react similarly to environmental conditions. Tape reliability is dependent upon quality construction. Therefore, the expense of procuring well-made tape will reward the collector.

The author divides tape risk factors into controllable and uncontrollable ones. Factors over which the collector has control are: the care with which tape is handled and shipped; storage conditions; and a number of times the tape is accessed during its lifetime. Factors over which we have less control are the tape's construction; the quality of the tape and the playback material if accessioned; and the future availability of playback technology.

Van Bogart's suggestions for care and handling are not much different than what we find in other articles. These include: avoid contamination by dirt and particulate matter; make multiple masters; limit access; make sure your storage facility is free of electric electromagnetic fields. He suggests that tape not be paused or ejected frequently.

Van Bogart makes a clear distinction between access- and archival- storage conditions. He recommends that the humidity set point (or area where the committee should be controlled) be between 25 to 55 percent relative humidity for access storage which is closer to closer to ambient room conditions. However, humidity set points should be as low as 20 percent relative humidity the temperature set point for access storage should be at 74 degrees Fahrenheit but as low as 40 degrees for archival storage. He recommends that temperature not differ by more than seven degrees in either case or beat or about 15 percent relative humidity.

The author reminds us about acclimation when a tape is removed from storage. Before it can be played, the cassette must readjust itself to both the humidity and temperature of the new environment. Tape lubricants can fail if they are not acclimated properly. VHS cassettes need about two hours to acclimate to ambient temperature after being taken out of storage. However, it takes about four days to acclimate to the humidity in the new environment. A 2-inch reel-to-reel tape will acclimate to temperature in 16 hours, but will continue to expand due to increased humidity for up to 50 days.[12]

He recommends that exercising take place every three years. "Exercising" refers to the periodic rewinding of a cassette. This needs to be done periodically to avoid unnecessary stress on any part of the tape. Videotapes that are subjected to being paused or go unrewound for long periods place unnecessary tension on the tape. They need to be retensioned through rewinding. Exercising also helps condition the lubricants that are in the tape.
 
 

Two Web How-Tos-- The American Institute for Conservation, The Library of Congress

The American Institute for Conservation's website is deserves mention for two reasons. First, it was prepared with the assistance of and other videotape conservators mentioned throughout this essay. [13]  Second, although it is aimed at home preservation efforts, it does reinforce many of Van Bogart's recommendations. The site includes a few useful illustrations, and succinct information about tape composition and common problems associated with the parts of the videotape.

The AIC recommends that the storage area's temperature and relative humidity should be kept constant; and that it should be dust-free. Tapes and recording mechanisms should never be kept in a hot or wet environment. The authors worn that sunlight an excessive heat do significant damage to all the parts of the videotape.

AIC suggests that tapes should not be left inside the VCR for too long in their threaded position, and that frequent pausing and ejecting can cause dropouts. Collectors should use a brand-new, brand-name tape whenever recording. Users should always break the tab on the back of the videotape, to avoid accidental erasure. While rewinding is recommended after each recording or playback, exercising to tapes is not mention that all.

Finally, AIC recommends that the VCR deserves attention: get a VCR dust cover, and clean your VCR as per the manufacturer's instructions on a regular basis.

The Library of Congress Office of Preservation site is the shortest information guide in our study.[14 ] It is designed both for the librarian and the home conservator. The guide is accompanied by an extensive bibliography, a list of links for other preservation organizations, and a list of distributors of preservation supplies. LC claims to follow the procedures outlined on its Web site.

LC recommends tapes to be stored between 45 and 50 degrees Fahrenheit, but warns that temperatures lower than 46 degrees may cause lubricants in the tape to break down (compare this with Wheeler and Van Bogart).[15]   The site also recommends that tapes should not be rewound until the user is ready to play them again (this may be to refresh the lubricants on the tape during rewind). Tapes should not be left in the "fast forward" or "rewind" positions, perhaps because these are pinch points where deterioration is most likely to occur.

LC suggests that playback equipment be cleaned with isopropyl alcohol and cotton swabs. VCRs should be demagnetized periodically by a professional.

In conclusion, all four resources suggest the use of quality, well-known tapes and recording equipment. Good housekeeping, and periodic retensioning are recommended prolong tape life. Temperatures between 40 and 59 degrees will help ensure the tape's resilience. Relative humidity should also be kept low, and steady. Tapes must acclimate to their environment before and after storage, and remain sensitive to environmental conditions.

The number of collection surveys is surprisingly scarce considering the popularity of the medium. The surveys that I found involved a diverse range of institutions. Organizations that were surveyed differed in size and scope of collection, as well as their preservation plans. Many, however, reported similar preservation issues.

Association of Moving Image Archivists

A study of an unspecified number of "cultural institutions" was conducted by the AMIA in 1994.[16]  Their telephone survey indicated a wide range of collections. Some institutions had up to 2000 tapes; many were in obsolete formats. Few had adequate playback media for the tapes. A large number of repositories had inadequate control over temperature and humidity. Only one institution had a climate-controlled facility. None of the institutions surveyed practiced reformatting on a large scale.

Many respondents voiced a need for more information regarding conservation practices, or displayed a certain ignorance of current practices. For example, a number of those surveyed took "reformatting" to mean that copies were made onto cheaper media so that researchers did not have to use the original tapes.

The survey suggests that preservation education proceed in two ways. Repositories should collaborate with institutions that use video extensively, but have not necessarily considered preservation: Law enforcement agencies, schools, commercial photographers. Also, preservation awareness should take place on a grass roots level:

The New York City-based Media Alliance surveyed sixty-two libraries, archives, media producers, museums, and arts centers in 1991. They received responses from institutions throughout the United States and Canada. Their survey gathered information regarding organizational identity, collection policies and holdings, storage facilities, institutional preservation goals, planning, and challenges.[18]

One interesting result of the survey was the wide variety with which institutions described themselves and their holdings. Because some respondents had both a non-circulating "study" collection and a commercial reproduction service, they considered themselves both an "archive" and "media producer." Still other organizations described themselves as "library" and "archive". This diversity was also visible in the variety of collections and management policies. There were widely-ranging collection sizes (30 to 40,000 tapes) on various formats; some organizations were primarily composed of commercially-produced tapes, while other collections were made up of staff-produced or one-of-a-kind artist's videos; some circulated items or had open shelves, while others used a paging system. There was a variety of cataloging practices in use. Some libraries labeled tapes with in-house call numbers while others used codes based on LC classifications or ones suggested by film institutes.[19]

Storage facilities were also wide-ranging: only one institution had an off-site storage facility (the Museum of Modern Art), while some respondents stored their tapes in boxes, file cabinets, or on bookshelves. One response is especially telling; the author notes that several responses described similar storage conditions:

One third of those surveyed estimated that one quarter of the collection needed some kind of service; one third indicated that half of their collection needed some repair; one third estimated that their whole collection needed service.[21]

Respondents indicated a variety of archival practices. Nearly half had no means of temperature and humidity control. Of those that did, few had more than a window air conditioner or dehumidifier. Only about one-quarter of the facilities had a vault, very few had magnetic field protection or adequate fire protection.[22]

Respondents were asked to offer their opinions of the most critical issues facing video preservation. Responses included the need to:

• Promote a greater concern, by both archivists and scholars, for the potential loss of information due to tape deterioration.
• Develop archival media that is both inexpensive and more stable.
• Move to standardized, universal formats.
• Demand cheaper cleaning and storage costs.
• Raise awareness and cooperative opportunity i.e., increased coordination of preservation efforts, to help avoid duplicating efforts.
• Develop preservation standards, and standards for prioritization.
• Raise awareness of the heritage and fragility of videotape.[23]

The Library of Congress has been interested in video preservation for over a decade. In 1993, it spearheaded an initiative to assess the general state of American film preservation.[24]   In 1996, LC asked over 700 television archives, media repositories, museums, and libraries to submit data on video holdings and preservation. It also collected written statements from well over 100 experts, many of whom gave testimony in Los Angeles, Washington DC, and New York in 1996 and 1997.

Respondents indicated that "open" educational access remains largely unattainable for a variety of reasons. Public archives were underfunded; there was disagreement about descriptive practices; copyright issues hindered tape availability; and use policies were very restrictive.

Network news archives faced substantial preservation issues because of the sheer quantity of footage they produce. Public television relegated preservation to a very low priority.[25]  The most devastating losses are reported to have occurred at local television stations. These losses were prompted by the switch from film to tape in the mid-1970s. Frequently, national and local news agencies erase or tape over videocassettes. LC indicated that about 11,000 obsolete tapes need to be copied at local television news archives alone.[26]

A comparison of libraries, museums, and similar data centers is especially revealing, as it indicates the volume of video data to be preserved, and the diversity of preservation efforts by these institutions. For example, LC reported that it had over 100,000 videotapes, including TV news footage, Congressional reports, and PBS footage. The National Archives and Records Administration held well over 42,000 videotapes from numerous sources including C-SPAN. Another 53,000 tapes are waiting to be cataloged. While exact numbers were not noted whether survey, NARA says it does extensive copying from obsolete formats.[27]

In comparison, the New York Public Library Music Division held only 8000 videos. Many of were listed as "one-of-a-kind." NYPL described its preservation program as very selective.[28]  The Museum of Broadcasting and Radio holds well over 60,000 videos and grows by six percent each year. While this institution actively promoted its holdings to the public and has a bustling preservation program, it lacked sufficient staff to cover its backlog and future preservation issues. [29]  San Francisco State University (home to a local television archive) reported that 50,000 linear feet of tape were processed each month. SFSU estimated that it had a 17-year cataloging backlog.[30]

Of the laundry list of issues described by these institutions, many are not much different than one would find in other kinds of archives.[31]

• Poor access to video collections because of nonexistent or idiosyncratic finding aides, or a lack of professional staff or librarians.
• Use of originals, or lack of reference or service copies. Many media centers said a lack a significant number of staff to keep up with cataloging, processing, or preservation.
• Insufficient number of viewers, especially for obsolete formats.
• Wide range of disparate media.
• Lack of trained technical staff.
• Many centers retained videotapes without being able to secure the rights to them. This means that due to these restrictions, copies could not be made for sale. This might help the archives pay for themselves.

Video preservation ethics are frequently debated in the literature. Some issues are similar to those faced by print archives. These include funding sources, and selection and prioritization for preservation. However, some situations are unique to video preservation.

For example, video conservators are able to enhance colors, contrast, and dialog when they reformat videotape. They can excise extraneous footage, or use footage from another source to splice previously-removed images. Film restorers often use these techniques as commercial vehicles: in the commercial film collector's market, the impetus behind reformatting is to create something better than the original.

Because these "enhanced" videotapes show no signs of being altered, the conservator faces the dilemma of aiding access through enhancement, or remaining faithful to the original. Both of the articles below discuss this and similar ethical issues.

Maria Troy and Connie Brooks on Esthetics and Ethics

Videotapes are single-press-run items. When noise reduction is used, color retouched, or extraneous parts are removed from a tape, there is a new product-- a new edition of the work. Video restorers have expressed a need to be faithful to the ur- video. To this end, Troy offers two examples ethical dilemmas that are unique to video.[32]

While cleaning an old copy of an artist's video, Troy discovered four minutes of new footage. She decided to make this known to the public, and began to distribute the enhanced, longer version commercially. Troy felt ethically obligated to offer the cleaned video as a different product from the first one. Neither could be called the "original."

In another case, Troy cleaned a 1973 reel-to-reel master, only to discover that it had a seriously damaged four-minute segment. The question arose: should she leave in the sequence or seek out another tape that might have a cleaner segment? She decided upon the latter, but the question remained: was she obligated to tell patrons that the film they were watching was spliced together?

Troy reminds us that the ethical issues that surround video preservation are similar to those of print: prioritization for preservation is subjective, and often depends upon funding.

Connie Brooks, a preservation librarian at Stanford University, outlines a number of similar ethical considerations in her presentation at Playback 96:[34]

• There are instances when the restorer needs to be an expert in the video's subject matter. This enables the preservation specialist to decide what might be altered or removed during reformatting. There are times when a videographer might be consulted for further information. However:
• Artists and other witnesses to the taped event may want to make changes in retrospect. Opinions about an event may have changed with time. Witnesses to an event, who may be very helpful to indexers who are trying to identify people, places, and events, may not be objective witnesses when asked about details like sound quality, lighting, or background noise.
• Preservation specialists have an ethical obligation to report what has been altered, even if it regards "useful" enhancements like noise reduction.
• Technology drives restoration techniques. Newer recording media may have features that, by their nature, create a new product. Some recorders have automatic noise reduction, contrast control, and mechanisms that detect and reduce skewed images. Either of these create a new product, albeit one that may look and sound better than the original.

An extensive amount of video preservation information has become available in the last decade. Much of it is available on the Internet, and a large body of preservation materials is available for conservators, archivists, and home collectors alike. While temperature and relative humidity continue to be an ongoing source for debate, scholars agree that stable, dust- and moisture- free conditions can significantly impact the life of videotape. Recent surveys have indicated a wide variety in collection sizes, institutional missions, and preservation initiatives. Funding, education, copyright restrictions, and the need for adequate playback and recording machines are issues that will continue to fuel research and discussion.

Finally, preservation of videotape is akin to creating new products. Format migration is inevitable. Those who reformat videotape must balance their need to preserve the original footage with the needs of potential viewers, who may desire an enhanced product.

The above studies suggest that the relative "newness" of videotape as a collectable artifact, its challenges, and lack of preservation awareness standards have made it lag behind paper conservation. One is challenged to think if the Internet had increased as it has helped to disseminate information. Surely, it has made catalogs more accessible, and fostered partnerships pined for by some survey respondents.
 

Association of Moving Image Archivists. http://www.amia.org/

Bay Area Video Coalition (BAVC). http://www.bavc.org/

Boyle, Deidre. Video Preservation: Securing the Future of the Past. New York: Media Alliance, 1993.

Brooks, Connie. "Ethical principles and dilemmas." Session transcript of Playback 1996 Conference

March 29th, 1996. Available at http://palimsest.stanford.edu/byorg/bavc/pb96/trasc/pt3c.html

Calmes,Alan. "New preservation concern: video recordings." Available at http://www.clir.org/cpanews/cpan122.html

"Cylinder, disk and tape care in a nutshell." Developed by the Library of Congress. Available at http://lcweb2.loc.gov

Fellows, Bruce. "Analysis and evaluation procedures." Session transcript of Playback 1996 Conference

Lewis, Alan. "Current preservation practice: promoting awareness and education." Session transcript of

Playback 1996 Conference, March 30th 1996. Available at http://palimsest.stanford.edu/byorg/bavc/pb96/trasc/pt4b.html

Library of Congress. Motion Picture Broadcasting and Recorded Sound Division. http://lcweb.loc.gov/

National Archives and Records Administration. Motion Picture Sound and Video Branch.http://www.nara.gov/nara/nn/nns/nnsm.html

Norris, Debbie Hess. "Caring for your home videotape." Developed by the American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works. 1997. Available at http://aic.stanford.edu/treasure/video.html

Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers. http://www.smpte.org/

Troy, Maria. "Video preservation: a report from the trenches." Afterimage. v23 ns 2 (Sept/Oct 1996):4-6.

Van Bogart, John W.C. "Magnetic tape storage and handling: a guide for libraries and archives." Available as pub 54 at http://www.clir.org/

Vidipax, Inc. http://www.panix.com/~vidipax/index.html

Wheeler, Jim. "Videotape preservation." 1994. Available at http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/byauth/wheeler/wheeler2.html

 5. Fellows, paragraph 13.
 6. Ibid.
 7. See Rebecca Bachman's remarks in "Analysis and Evaluation Procedures," Transcript of Playback 96 March 29, 1996, <http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/byorg/bavc/pb96/transc/pt2a.html>

 8.Fellows mentions a number of disastrous meetings with fungus.  Some tapes of had come from Belize and other Central American countries.  He warns that tapes stored in garages and basements are often exposed to mold.
  9.Jim Wheeler, "Videotape Preservation," November 1994.  March 15, 2000. Available at <http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/byauth/wheeler/wheeler2.html>
 10. See Y. Okazaki et al, "Estimating the Archival Life of Metal Particle Tape," IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, (September 1992): 2.  Okazaki et al suggest that tapes manufactured with the current formula of metal alloys may last about 30 years, and that ones using newly-introduced, denser oxide layers may last nearly one hundred.
 The engineering field has contributed much in the last decade to the field of video preservation.  Patton and Bhushan concluded that videotapes exposed to high humidity experience more frequent "dropout" (i.e., magnetic material flaking off the tape) because water vapor collects on the tape and the playback/recording heads.  The water acts as a friction point, straining the tape as it rolls.  (See Steven T. Patton and Bharat Bhushan, "Environmental Effects on the Streaming Mode  Performance of Metal Evaporated and Metal Particle Tapes," IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, v.33 ns 4 (July 1997): 2513-2531.)  Sides et al determined that commercial video tapes are substantially more resistant to demagnetization than expected  (See Paul J. Sides et al, "An Investigation of the Archivability of Metal Particle Tape," IEEE Transactions on Magnetics v.30 ns 6 (November 1994): 4059-4068.) Finally, Kim et al determined that improper tape tension can damage the VCR playback heads;  this problem often feigns tape wear.  (See Sookyung Kim et al, "Characteristics of Wear and Contamination of Video Heads in Consumer VCRs," IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics v 43 ns 3 (August 1997):360-367.
 11.John W. C. Van Bogart, Magnetic Tape Storage and Handling: A Guide for Libraries and Archives, June 1995, February 2, 2000. Available at ,http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub54/preface.html> He derives this information through the National Media Laboratory.
12.  Van Bogart, Ibid. Especially with news footage shot outside, tapes are susceptible to picking up excess moisture when warmed.  They must be brought up to temperature slowly, or they will cause hydrolysis.
13. "Caring for your home videotape," 1997, February 2, 2000.  Available at <http://aic.stanfird.edu/treasure/video.html> Deidre Boyle, Jim Lindner, Alan Lewis, and Connie Brooks are listed as advisors.
14. "Cylinder, Disc and Tape Care in a Nutshell," December 1998, February 2, 2000.  Available at <http://lcweb2.loc.gov/>
15.   Van Bogart recommends 59 degrees F/40% RH for long-term storage.  He warns that temperatures below 32 degrees can cause degradation. Wheeler suggests that 40 degrees F/25% RH is best.  Meanwhile, Fellows believes there is a lower limit to humidity for video storage.  Extreme low humidity causes static electricity, and may cause the tape to become brittle.
16.  Alan Lewis, "Current Preservation Practice- Promoting Awareness and Education," Transcript of Playback 96 conference, February 2, 2000.  Available at <http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/byorg/bavc/pb96/transc/pt4b.html
AMIA is the Association of Moving Image Archivists.
17. Lewis, paragraphs 16,17.
18. Deidre Boyle, Video Preservation: Securing the Future of the Past,  NYC: Media Alliance, 1993:5.
19.  While almost all of the institutions surveyed were members of RLIN or OCLC, in-house cataloging varied widely.  Some institutions cataloged their videos like books, using AACR2.  Others used Subjects developed by the National Moving Image Database Project (NMIDP) video specifications.  Some used MINARET, a database program developed by NMIDP, while others used in-house systems using Dbase4.  A number of institutions reported that, due to funding shortages, they didn't officially catalog videos, or were unable to create their own catalogs.  See Boyle, 8.
20. Boyle, 11.
21.Boyle, 6.
22.Ibid., 10.
23. Ibid., 13.
24.  Television and Video Preservation 1997:  A Study of the Current State of American Television and Video Preservation, Volume 1: Report, Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1997:18-20.
 25. Fortunately, PBS has contracted with LC to store its programming. See LC, Television, 72.
26.Ibid., 90
 27.Ibid., 80.
28.Ibid.,  83.
29.Ibid.,84 -85.

 30.Ibid., 92
 31.Ibid., 90.
  32.Maria Troy, "Video Preservation: A Report From the Trenches,"  Afterimage, v23 ns2. Expanded Academic Index [Online database] <http://infotrac.galegroup.com>
 33. Troy, paragraph 8.
 34. Connie Brooks, "Ethical Principles and Dilemmas," Transcript of Playback 1996 conference, March 29, 1996, February 2,2000.  Available at < http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/byorg/bavc/pb96/transc/pt3c.html>
35. Brooks, paragraph 6.