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Course Overview:  Philosophical disciplines are defined by the questions they address.  Political theory focuses on the nature and purpose of human association.  Human beings are, as Aristotle says, ãpolitical animals.ä  Not only must we cooperate in order to survive, but our moral and intellectual faculties can develop only in association with other people.  Problems of communal life have been apparent since society first arose.  Some of these are obvious today: how to preserve order, to protect the weak from the strong, to provide for the common defense, to care for those unable to care for themselves.  But more fundamental questions must also be addressed, including the overall goals communities should pursue.

As citizens, we are constantly presented with particular questions bearing on our relationship to government.  Should I pay such and such taxes?  Is it permissible to violate speed limit laws?  Is it more permissible if most everyone else does so?  If my country demands that I make myself available for military service, to fight and possibly die, must I do so?  While serving in my countryâs army, must I do whatever I am ordered to do?  Are there any limits here?  If so, what are they, and how are they enforced?  In attempting to answer these questions and others like them, one is inevitably drawn to more general and fundamental questions concerning political authority.  What purposes does political authority serve?  What are the individualâs obligation to it?  At what point do these obligations run out?  What recourse does one have when they do?

Because of the dependence of specific questions on these more general ones, we might appear to have arrived at an impasse.  If we cannot know whether we should pay our taxes until we sort out general questions of political authority, then we have a problem.  The general questions are so abstract and complex that one hardly knows where to begin in attempting to answer them.  One of political theoryâs great contributions is that it attempts to provide answers.  In making clear our relationship to the state, political theory is of inestimable importance.  Over the course of the semester we will investigate some of the answers provided by the most important political theorists of the modern age.

The reading load for this class is heavy, and although some of this material will sound familiar to you, much of it will not.  Do not be frustrated if you do not understand a text the first time you read through it.  Much of what we will be reading can be resistant to easy interpretation, so you are encouraged to read through difficult passages more than once and discuss them with colleagues as well as in class; the formation of study groups is highly recommended.  Also, be an aggressive reader: ask questions while you are reading.  If you do not understand a passage, mark it and ask about it in class.  Highlight or underline passages you feel are important, and note your own comments in the margins.  Read critically; given proper attention this material can be fascinating.

Requirements:  Regular attendance and timely completion of the readings are required as class discussion will play a strong role in determining your grade; more than three unexcused absences, consequently, will result in the loss of a letter grade.  A midterm and final examination will be administered.  Two papers are required, topics for which will be handed out several weeks prior to their due dates.  Final grades will be based upon the following scale:

Papers                     50 points each (100)
Midterm                   50 points (50)
Final                        50 points (50)
Class Participation    50 points (50)

Texts:  The following texts are available at Ariel Booksellers for purchase.  All texts are also available in the library on reserve. Additional readings may be placed on reserve in the library.  If you choose to purchase your texts from a different vendor than Ariel, please be sure to order the edition specified below.

Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince (Hackett, 1995)
Martin Luther, Martin Luther: Selections (Anchor, 1961)
Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Hackett, 1994)
John Locke, Second Treatise of Government (Hackett, 1980)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, On the Social Contract (Hackett, 1988)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (Hackett, 1992)
John Stuart Mill, On Liberty (Hackett, 1995) 
David Hume, Political Writings  (Hackett, 2000)
Montesquieu, The Persian Letters (Hackett, 1999) tr. G. Healey
Friedrich Nietzsche, On the Genealogy of Morals (Hackett, 1995)
 

Readings:  I have purposely not assigned readings to specific days ö this will allow us the flexibility to take the time to go through each thinker at our own pace; some philosophers will require two or more weeks of reading and discussion (Rousseau), others we may discuss in a day or two (Mill).   I will let you know weekly in class where you should be in the reading.  A list of important dates and reading groupings, however, are listed below:
 

The Birth of Modern Politics:  Machiavelliâs The Prince
 Reading Assignment:  pp. 5-80
 Recommended Reading: pp. xi-xxxvii (Introduction);  1-4

 Further Reading: Machiavelli, The Discourses, Mandragola
   Hanna Pitkin, Fortune is a Woman (University of California, 1984)
   Sebastian de Grazia, Machiavelli in Hell (Vintage, 1989)
   J. G. A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment (Princeton, 1975)

The Political Impact of the Reformation: Martin Luther
Reading Assignment: pp. 42-85, 166-207, 363-402, 403-488
Recommended Reading:  pp. xi-xxxiii (Introduction); 489-499

Further Reading:  James Atkinson, Martin Luther and the Birth of Protestantism (London, 1982)
   W. D. J. Cargill, The Political Thought of Martin Luther (Sussex, 1984)
   F. E. Cranz, An Essay on the Development of Luther's Thought on Justice, Law and Society
            (Cambridge, 1959).

The War of All Against All: Thomas Hobbesâ Leviathan
 Reading Assignment:  pp. 3-5; 74-100; 106-127; 136-159, 172-189, 210-219
 Recommended Reading: pp. viii-xlvii (Introduction)

 Further Reading: Jean Hampton, Hobbes and the Social Contract Tradition (Cambridge, 1986)
   Gregory Kavka, Hobbesian Moral and Political Theory (Princeton, 1986)
   Howard Warrender, The Political Philosophy of Thomas Hobbes (Oxford, 1957)

Sound Familiar? Itâs Liberal Political Theory: John Lockeâs Second Treatise of Government
 Reading Assignment:  pp. 7-124
 Recommended Reading:  pp. vii-xxi

 Further Reading: John Dunn, The Political Thought of John Locke (Cambridge, 1969)
   C. B. MacPherson, The Theory of Possessive Individualism (Oxford, 1962)
   Martin Seliger, The Liberal Politics of John Locke (Praeger, 1969)

Social Science and the Conditions of Liberty: Montesquieu
Reading Assignment:  TBA
Recommended Reading:  TBA

Further Reading:  Isaiah Berlin, "Montesquieu" Proceedings of the British Academy, 41 (1955)
George Klosko, "Montesquieu's Science of Politics" Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth
    Century 189 (1980)
R. Shackleton, Montesquieu: A Critical Biography (Oxford, 1961)

Paradoxes and Conundrums: Jean-Jacques Rousseauâs Discourse on Inequality and Social Contract
 Reading Assignment:  Discourse on Inequality pp. 112-222  [Be sure to read the notes, indicated by a
                                    bracketed Roman numeral in the text.  Eg: (xv).]
                               Social Contract pp. 39-152
 Recommended Reading: Introductions to both editions

 Further Reading: Rousseau, Confessions
   Tracy Strong, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Politics of the Ordinary (Sage, 1994)
   Lester G. Crocker, Rousseauâs Social Contract: An Interpretive Essay (1968)
   J. W. Chapman, Rousseau: Totalitarian or Liberal? (AMS Press, 1968)

Utilitarian Liberalism: John Stuart Mill, On Liberty
 Reading Assignment: pp. 1-113
 Recommended Reading:  pp. vii-xxi (Editorâs Introduction)

 Further Reading:  Mill, The Subjection of Women; Utilitarianism
   Jeremy Bentham, Benthamâs Political Writings B. Parekh (ed.) (London, 1973)
   John Gray, Mill on Liberty: A Defense (London, 1983)
   Alan Ryan, J. S. Mill (London, 1974)

The Postmodern Turn: Nietzscheâs Thus Spake Zarathustra
 Required Reading:  pp. all
 Recommended Reading: Editorâs Introduction

 Further Reading:  R. Solomon (ed.) Reading Nietzsche
   Alexander Nehamas, Nietzsche: Life as Literature (Cambridge, 1985)
   Tracy Strong, Friedrich Nietzsche and the Politics of Transfiguration (Berkeley, 1975)
 

Important Dates to Remember:

3/2 First Paper Due

3/14 Midterm Examination

5/11 Last Day of Class - Second Paper Due

Final Exam:  Thursday, May 18  9:30-11:30
 

Study Questions

Machiavelli:
1.  What is "modernity"?  What is "liberalism"?
2.  How "modern" is Machiavelli?  Would you classify him in either the Medieval or Modern periods in terms of his political thought?
4.  Machiavelli is commonly thought to claim that the "ends justify the means."  Explain what this phrase means, and discuss to what extent (if any) Machiavelli agrees with it.
5.  What does Machiavelli see as his purposes in writing The Prince?  Does he see himself as doing something different from political writers that came before him?
6.  Does Machiavelli see a division between morality and politics?  If so, to what extent?  If not, why not?  Do you think there is - or should be - a division between morality and politics?
7.  Do Machiavelli's views on religion reflect a "modern" view of religion?  Be sure to explain what Machiavelli's views on religion were.
8.  To what extent do The Prince and The Discourses have similar goals?  To what extent do they differ?  Why?
9.  Explain the relationship between virtù and fortuna in The Prince.

Martin Luther
1.  What does Martin Luther mean when he writes, apparently paradoxically, "A Christian is a perfectly free lord of all, subject to none.  A Christian is a perfectly dutiful servant, subject to all"? (Freedom of a Christian p. 53)
2.  Does Martin Luther allow any sort of resistance to civic authority?  Why or why not in theological terms?  How does Luther's position on resistance to authority mesh with the rest of his theology?
3.  What are 'indulgences' and why do they seem to upset Martin Luther so much?  What are the philosophical and temporal grounds for his objections to indulgences?
4.  Martin Luther is said to have revolutionized society's approach to reading the Bible.  How?  And what are Luther's theological reasons for doing so?
5.  Is Martin Luther a conciliarist?  Why or why not? (And what is a conciliarist?)
6.  Martin Luther describes himself as being obsessed with his sins as a young monk in the Catholic Church.  Why did this obsession drive him to split with the Catholic Church?
7.  Where, according to Martin Luther, is authority to be found in scriptural interpretation? Why?
8.  Why does Martin Luther think that priests in the Catholic Church are unnecessary?
9. What is Martin Luther's position on heresy?  Does he adequately justify this position?
 

Thomas Hobbes
1.  What is "rational egoism" and how does it apply to Hobbes' State of Nature?
2.  What is the "State of Nature"?  How is it used in political theory?  Is there an equivalent to the State of Nature in today's world?
3.  Why is it difficult for Hobbes' individuals to perform in cooperative arrangements?  What characteristics of human nature prevent them from doing so?  Do you believe Hobbes' description of human nature is accurate?  Why or why not?
4.  Explain the difference between the Classical and Medieval conception of Natural Law and Hobbes' conception of Natural Law.  Why does Hobbes make his conception of Natural Law significantly different from the Classical and Medieval conceptions?
5.  How does Hobbes describe the process that takes individuals out of the State of Nature and into Civil Society?
6.  What do individuals give up to the Sovereign when they move out of the State of Nature?
7.  What are Natural Rights to Hobbes?  Can we give them up?  If so, how?  If not, why not?
8.  What is the relationship between the Sovereign and the Subjects?  What rights, if any, do subjects have against their Sovereign?  Are there any limits on the Sovereign's powers?
9.  What is "Social Contract Theory"?  What is the purpose of the social contract in political theory?
10.  Is Thomas Hobbes "modern'?  In what sense?
11.  In what sense is Hobbes 'scientific'?  Is he more or less scientific than Machiavelli?
12.  What role does 'fear' play in Hobbes' political philosophy?
13.  Hobbes is often called an 'absolutist' political theorist.  Why is this so?
 

John Locke
1.  What is John Locke's description of life in the state of nature?
2.  How does Locke justify the possession of private property?  What are the potential problems with this justification?
3.  According to Locke, how do we make the transition from the state of nature into civil society?  What must we give up to do this, and why does Locke say that we will?
4.  What is Locke's argument justifying resistance to civil authorities?  Is the argument firm?  What would Machiavelli say about his argument?
5.  What is the difference between the state of nature and the state of war?  How can one leave the state of war?
6.  What are Locke's arguments to justify political obligation?  Are there any problems with his arguments?  Could they be used today (could any arguments be used today)?
7.  What does Locke mean when he says he wants to justify a 'limited government'?  How limited?
8.  Does and individual have the same rights in the state of nature as she has in civil society according to Locke?

Vocabulary:
Enlightenment        Cartesian Skepticism          Political Obligation
Deism                   Lockean System                Natural Laws
State of Nature      Social Contract                  Tacit Consent
Express Consent    Civil Society                      Natural Rights
 

Montesquieu Questions
1.  What are Montesquieu's arguments for separation of powers?  How doe his arguments play out in American Constitutional thought?
2.  What does Montesquieu mean by the "principle" of a country or nation?
3.  How is the way in which Usbeck attempts to control his harem in the "Persian Letters" indicative of a despotism?
4.  How does despotism warp and deform human nature, according to your reading of the "Persian Letters"?5.  What does Montesquieu seem to have to say about religion in the "Persian Letters"?
6.  What sorts of political lessons can we learn from the story of the Troglodytes in the "Persian Letters"?
7.  What is the relationship between the eunuchs and the wives in the "Persian Letters"?
8.  Given Montesquieu's many comments on the status of women, can we consider him a 'feminist'?
9.  What is the difference between Usbeck and Rica?  Are their views of French society different?
10.  What does Montesquieu have to say about relativism in the "Persian Letters"?
 

Jean-Jacques Rousseau:
1.  What was the Enlightenment, and what relationship did it have to Rousseau's thinking?
2.  What is Rousseau's vision of life in the state of nature?  How does this differ from Locke, and how does it figure into the movement from the state of nature into civil society?
3.  What is Rousseau's conception of human nature?  How does his differ from Locke's, and how does it figure into his theory of civil society?
4.  What does Rousseau say is corrupting about civil society?  To what extent do you agree with Rousseau?
5.  Why does freedom or liberty play such a prominent role in Rousseau's thinking?  (And what is that role?)
6.  How does the social contract work in Rousseau's writings?  Compare with Locke.
7.  What is the 'general will'?  Why is Rousseau often criticized for introducing the 'general will' into his political thought?
8.  Discuss the role of reason in Rousseau.  Compare with Locke.
9.  What does Rousseau think about the institution of property?  Explain how property was established and compare Rousseau with Locke on this issue.
10.  Is negative or positive freedom more important for Rousseau?  Can you say the same thing for Locke?

Vocabulary:
amour de soi             amour propre          pitie
negative freedom      positive freedom          general will
 

John Stuart Mill and the Utilitarians:
1.  What is the relationship between utilitarianism and liberalism?
2.  What role do rights play in utilitarian thought?
3.  How does Mill propose to deal with the problem of majority tyranny in On Liberty?
4.  What role do the public and private spheres play in Millâs thought?
5.  How does Mill differ from Jeremy Bentham?
6.  What role does freedom of thought or expression play in Millâs political theory?  What are the limits that can be placed on free thought or expression?
7.  What is the relationship between the individual and society in Millâs thought?  How does this differ from, say, Locke?
8.  What assumptions underlie Millâs defense of the ãself-regardingä area?  Are these assumptions defensible?
9.  What is Millâs argument in The Subjection of Women?
10.  Assess Millâs relationship to the wider philosophical school of liberalism, stressing both the points of contact and the points of tension.

Vocabulary:
Deontological      Utile
Teleological         Utilitarianism
 

Friedrich Nietzsche:
1.  Why does Nietzsche bitterly attack both Cartesian thought and utilitarianism?
2.  What, according to Nietzsche, are the guiding forces of life?
3.  Why must we reevaluate traditional values?
4.  Nietzsche describes himself as Îphilosophizing with a hammerâ.  What does he mean by this?
5.  What is it about the Christian ideal that Nietzsche attacks?
6.  What possibility for politics do you see in Nietzscheâs thought?

Vocabulary:
Foundationalism  Antifoundationalism
Postmodernism  Modernism